Email this article Using the efflorescence mechanism of portland cement to obtain a shiny calcium carbonate surface
DOI: https://doi.org/10.20528/cjcrl.2026.01.003
View Counter: Abstract | 211 times | ‒ Full Article | 92 times |
Full Text:
PDFAbstract
This study presents a novel curing strategy to produce a smooth and shiny surface on Portland cement paste by controlling efflorescence. The proposed methodology consists of curing fresh cement paste in contact with a smooth, polystyrene mold, which modifies the boundary conditions at the cement–mold interface by limiting evaporation and promoting local moisture retention during early hydration. Although direct exposure to the atmosphere is restricted, carbon dioxide from the environment can still diffuse through the cement pore network and specimen edges. Under these conditions, calcium ion migration toward the interface is facilitated, leading to the controlled precipitation of a thin, calcium carbonate–rich surface layer. The surface and bulk evolution of the cement paste were investigated after 7, 14, and 28 days of curing using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), surface gloss measurements, and compressive strength testing. The analyses reveal the formation of a uniform near-surface region enriched in calcium-containing phases, while the bulk phase assemblage remains dominated by typical hydration products. Quantitative gloss measurements show an increase in surface reflectivity with curing time, reaching approximately 57 ± 1.3 gloss units after 28 days. Compressive strength results indicate that the formation of the shiny surface layer does not adversely affect the mechanical performance of the material. Overall, the results indicate that under the proposed curing conditions, controlled efflorescence could be harnessed as a surface engineering approach to obtain visually uniform and chemically stable surfaces without the use of additives or post-processing treatments.
Keywords
References
Al-Jabari M (2022). Concrete durability problems: physicochemical and transport mechanisms. In: Integral Waterproofing of Concrete Structures. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 69–107.
Bai J (2009). Durability of sustainable concrete materials. In: Khatib JM, editor. Sustainability of Construction Materials. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 239–253.
Bogue RH (1955). The Chemistry of Portland Cement. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, USA.
Brick Industry Association (2006). Efflorescence – Causes and prevention. Technical Note 23A. https://www.gobrick.com/docs/default-source/read-research-documents/technicalnotes/tn23a.pdf [accessed 01-09-2024].
Brocken HJP, Nijland TG (2004). White efflorescence on brick masonry and concrete masonry blocks, with special emphasis on sulfate efflorescence on concrete blocks. Construction and Building Materials, 18(5), 315–323.
Chakrabarty D, Mahapatra S (1999). Aragonite crystals with unconventional morphologies. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 9(11), 2953–2957.
Chindaprasirt P, Jitsangiam P, Rattanasak U (2022). Hydrophobicity and efflorescence of lightweight fly ash geopolymer incorporated with calcium stearate. Journal of Cleaner Production, 364, 132449.
Dahri AA (2022). Experimental study of effects of efflorescence control admixture in cement mortar. Quaid-e-Awam University Research Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 20(2), 71–76.
Jennings HM (2000). A model for the microstructure of calcium silicate hydrate in cement paste. Cement and Concrete Research, 30(1), 101–116.
Khayat KH (1999). Workability, testing, and performance of self-consolidating concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 96(3), 346–353.
Kosmatka SH, Kerkhoff B, Panarese WC (2002). Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, USA.
Liang K, Cui K, Sabri MMS, Huang J (2022). Influence factors in the wide application of alkali-activated materials: A critical review about efflorescence. Materials, 15(18), 6436.
Lothenbach B, Scrivener K, Hooton RD (2011). Supplementary cementitious materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 41(12), 1244–1256.
Lura P, Jensen OM, Van Breugel K (2003). Autogenous shrinkage in high-performance cement paste: An evaluation of basic mechanisms. Cement and Concrete Research, 33(2), 223–232.
Ma Y, Qian J (2018). Influence of alkali sulfates in clinker on the hydration and hardening of Portland cement. Construction and Building Materials, 180, 351–363.
Mehta PK, Monteiro PJM (2014). Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Education, New York, USA.
Mindess S, Young JF, Darwin D (2003). Concrete. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA.
Neville AM (2011). Properties of Concrete. 5th ed. Pearson Education, London, UK.
Provis JL, van Deventer JSJ (2014). Alkali Activated Materials. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Ramachandran VS (1996). Concrete Admixtures Handbook. 2nd ed. William Andrew Publishing, Norwich, NY, USA.
Scrivener KL, John VM, Gartner EM (2018). Eco-efficient cements: Potential, economically viable solutions for a low-CO₂, cement-based materials industry. Cement and Concrete Research, 114, 2–26.
Sutan NM, Sinin H (2013). Efflorescence phenomenon on concrete structures. Advanced Materials Research, 626, 747–750.
Taylor HFW (1997). Cement Chemistry. 2nd ed. Thomas Telford, London, UK.
Xue X, Liu YL, Dai JG, Poon CS, Zhang WD, Zhang P (2018). Inhibiting efflorescence formation on fly ash–based geopolymer via silane surface modification. Cement and Concrete Composites, 94, 43–52.
Ylmen R, Jäglid U (2013). Carbonation of Portland cement studied by diffuse reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 7(2), 119–125.
Zhang Z, Provis JL, Reid A, Wang H (2014). Fly ash-based geopolymers: The relationship between composition, pore structure and efflorescence. Cement and Concrete Research, 64, 30–41.
Zhang Z, Provis JL, Ma X, Reid A, Wang H (2018). Efflorescence and subflorescence induced microstructural and mechanical evolution in fly ash-based geopolymers. Cement and Concrete Composites, 92, 165–177.
